Online learning has placed student webcam use at the center of a pedagogical debate. The decision to turn a webcam on or off is a complex one, impacted by technological, social, psychological, and instructional factors. We searched some empirical articles on this topic and synthesized them to explore the role of webcams in the virtual classroom. This article will examine the patterns of student webcam behavior, the motivations behind these choices, the evidenced advantages and disadvantages of camera use, and finally, pedagogical alternatives that promote engagement without relying on mandatory webcam use. The overall theme across the empirical studies is that webcam use is a double-edged sword: while it can foster a sense of connection, it also raises critical concerns regarding equity, privacy, and student well-being. Thus, it is suggested that a more flexible approach to webcam use and alternative strategies for class engagement are more effective.

Student Behaviors and Patterns of Webcam Use

Empirical studies reveal that student webcam use is highly variable than being a fixed behavior, and context dependent. Research consistently shows that a majority of students are reluctant to keep their cameras on during whole-class sessions. In a large-scale survey of 727 Swiss university students, Succi et al. (2024) found that only 6% of participants always kept their webcams on during online classes. This pattern is echoed in more specific academic contexts; for instance, a study of dental students in Pakistan by Farid et al. (2022) reported an extreme aversion, with 83% of their 491 participants never turning on their webcams. Meanwhile, Händel et al. (2022), in a massive survey of 3,610 German university students, found a more distributed pattern, with webcam use splitting roughly into thirds: one-third never used it, one-third used it only when required, and one-third used it for whole sessions. 

A key behavioral pattern is situational switching. Students are strategic, activating cameras for specific interactive tasks. This is supported by Händel et al. (2022), who found webcam use was significantly higher in smaller breakout rooms and self-organized study groups compared to the main lecture hall setting. Furthermore, behavior is heavily influenced by emergent social and cultural norms. Dennen et al. (2022), in their cross-cultural study of 2,298 students from the United States, Turkey, and South Korea, highlighted that students conform to peer behavior and that cultural expectations shape practices. For example, U.S. students showed higher webcam engagement, while South Korean students preferred passive engagement with recordings.

Reasons for Turning Webcams On

When students choose to turn their webcams on, their motivations are often rooted in social connection and perceived usefulness. A primary motivator is the desire for relatedness, as mentioned by LeRoy & Kaufmann (2024) in their qualitative study of 299 U.S. undergraduates framed by Self-Determination Theory. Students reported being more likely to use webcams when they felt connected to peers or instructors, particularly during small group activities. This aligns with the concept of normative influence, where instructor encouragement and peer modeling play a role in motivating students webcam on (Händel et al., 2022). 

Beyond social factors, students are motivated by a perceived usefulness. For example, Pham (2022) surveyed 166 Vietnamese engineering students and found that a primary reason for turning webcams on was the belief that it improved interaction, increased focus, and create a sense of “classroom normalcy”. Similarly, Gherheș et al. (2021), in their survey of 1353 Romanian students, found that when webcams were used voluntarily, key reasons included showing respect for the teacher (20.1%) and demonstrating attentiveness (9.1%).

Reasons for Turning Webcams Off

The reasons for turning webcams off are often more complex and deeply personal, falling into several key categories supported by empirical evidence. Privacy and self-presentation concerns are the predominant reasons for not turning webcams on for students. Succi et al. (2024) found that 57% of their 727 Swiss students attended class from their bedroom, with many dressed in casual attire, leading to significant discomfort with revealing their private spaces and personal appearance. This anxiety is exacerbated by findings like those of Cook et al. (2023), whose experimental study demonstrated that Zoom backgrounds significantly impact judgments of trustworthiness and competence, making students aware of being judged. In another study, Farid et al. (2022) specifically noted that female students were significantly more likely to mention self-consciousness and appearance-related concerns.

Technical and equity issues also affected student’s webcam behavior. Practical barriers are a major factor. In the Pakistani dental student sample (Farid et al., 2022), 39% cited internet speed issues as a key reason for keeping cameras off. These are not mere inconveniences but matters of digital equity. Gherheș et al. (2021) highlighted that students without a dedicated learning space (nearly 40% of their sample) or those relying on mobile phones (17.7%) are disproportionately affected by webcam mandates, potentially amplifying socioeconomic disparities. 

Lack of perceived usefulness and fatigue was another reason for turning webcams off. A critical finding from the large-scale mixed-methods study by Groß & Fries (2025) was that the most significant predictor for not using a webcam was a lack of perceived usefulness. The researchers surveyed 1134 students across European universities, and found that students questioned the value of webcams, especially during uninteresting/non-engaging lectures. Furthermore, continuous webcam use is linked to fatigue, which can harm wellbeing (Zhu et al., 2025).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Webcam Use

The empirical evidence regarding the impact of webcam use shows a contradictory picture. The advantages of webcam use are primarily socio-affective rather than directly cognitive which often function through indirect pathways. In comparison, the disadvantages of webcam use touches on cognitive performance, student well-being and equity issues.

1. Advantages of Webcam Use

The most documented benefit of webcam use is the enhancement of social connection. This is powerful in the large-scale mixed-method study conducted by Groß & Fries (2025), who surveyed 1,134 students across European universities. Their casual mediation analysis revealed that webcam use did not directly cause better grades but had a significant positive indirect effect. To be more specific, they found that students who used their webcams had higher levels of learning enjoyment and stronger social academic integration, which refers to the feeling of being part of a learning community and interacting with peers and instructors. This sense of integration was a key predictor that led to improved self-reported academic performance. The study suggests that the benefit is not from simply being seen, but from the enriched social interaction that webcams can provide.

Another advantage of webcam use is that it can create a sense of accountability that fosters attentiveness. Lasekan et al. (2024), studied 452 university students in India and identified mandatory webcam use as a significant predictor of high student engagement. Their analysis put it within the “social presence” factor, showing that having a private room and using a webcam worked togeter to create a conducive environment for participants. 69.2% of students in such conditions showed high participation. Similarly, Händel et al. (2022), in their survey of 3,610 German students, found that while visual and verbal engagement were distinct, the normative pressure of peers using webcams was a stronger influencer, creating a classroom environment where active participation was visibly modeled. 

2. Disadvantages of Webcam Use

The biggest challenge to mandatory webcam policies comes from controlled experimental evidence from Zhu et al. (2025). They conducted a rigorous laboratory study with 33 Chinese university students, using a 2x2 design (instructor webcam on/off and student webcam on/off). Their findings directly challenge the assumption that visibility aids engagement. They discovered that turning off the instructor’s webcam led to significantly better student performance on both retention and tests. The researchers explain that the instructor's video provides competes for cognitive resources and may increase social anxiety, thereby negatively impacting learning. This aligns with Händel et al. (2022), who found only a weak correlation between webcam use and verbal contribution, suggesting that “being seen” is not synonymous with “engaging cognitively”.

The psychological burden of being on camera is also well-documented. Farid et al. (2022) found that among 491 Pakistani dental students, 61.7% cited “comfort” as a primary reason for keeping webcams off and 59.6% were distracted by others’ webcams, indicating a stressful experience. Interestingly, Groß & Fries (2025) also found that webcam use increased videoconferencing fatigue. While they found a surprising positive correlation between this fatigue and performance, they caution that increasing fatigue can undoubtedly harm student wellbeing over time. 

The most critical argument against mandates revolves around equity. The evidence here is clear and consistent. Succi et al. (2024) found that 57% of their 727 Swiss students attended class from their bedrooms, and 80% dressed differently than they would on campus, creating significant discomfort. Gherheș et al. (2021) reported that 10.3% of their 1,353 Romanian students avoided webcams due to the risk of others walking into the background, and 10.1% lacked adequate equipment. These concerns are also impacted by other factors such as gender. Farid et al. (2022) noted that female students felt these pressure more acutely. Mandating webcams forces students to disclose their socioeconomic status and private lives, potentially excluding those from less resourced or crowded households.

Alternative Strategies for Fostering Engagement When Webcams Are Off

Given the disadvantages of mandates, the literature advocates for a series of alternative strategies that foster engagement through other strategies. Empirical evidence confirms that reducing class size dramatically increases comfort. Händel et al. (2022) quantitatively demonstrated that webcam use was higher in smaller breakout rooms and self-organized study groups compared to the main lecture setting. Therefore, instructors should design courses with frequent, purposeful small group activities. This allows students who are hesitant in a large group session to build rapport in a safer, more intimate setting, thus making them more likely to voluntarily turn on their cameras and contribute to the class.

Secondly, engagement should be measured by cognitive and verbal participation, not merely visual presence. Händel et al. (2022) showed that verbal engagement was most strongly predicted by a perception of “open communication”. Instructors can foster this by using tools that allow participation regardless of camera status. Instructors can use polls, quizzes, and collaborative documents such as Google Docs, which allows all students to contribute simultaneously without the pressure of speaking on the spot. Instructors are also encouraged to explicitly allow students to contribute via audio with their camera off, which provides an alternative for those who wish to speak but remain visually private.

Thirdly, encouragement is more effective than mandatory use of webcams. LeRoy & Kaufmann (2024), drawing on Self-Determination Theory, found that supporting student autonomy was a key motivator. Instead of requiring webcams, instructors should clearly explain the value of turning webcams on and allow students to make decisions by themselves. This approach, observed in studies like Gherheș et al. (2021), respects student choice while promoting the benefits. Furthermore, instructors modeling the use of their own camera thoughtfully during interactive segments can encourage reciprocity (Händel et al., 2022). 

Last but not least, institutions and instructors can reduce barriers and address certain concerns. Farid et al. (2022) specifically recommend teaching students to use virtual backgrounds or tools to obscure their environment to address privacy concerns. Gherheș et al. (2021) also suggest that such technical support can increase willingness. Additionally, training sessions on digital presence can empower students and reduce the anxiety highlighted by studies.

In conclusion, the empirical evidence clearly shows that student webcam use is a complex issue without a universal pattern. While some studies found the use of webcams can indirectly support learning, foster social integration and enjoyment, they did not find evidence of cognitive benefits. Other studies found that webcams introduce significant risks related to equity, privacy, student anxiety, and fatigue. The most effective approach, as suggested by the research studies, is for instructors to adopt a flexible strategy. This involves creating multiple ways of engagement such as small group discussion and other interactive digital tools. These ways can foster a class culture that values verbal contribution and the optional use of webcams. By respecting student choice, instructors can cultivate an inclusive online learning environment that achieves the essential goals of connection and learning.  

References

Cook, A., Thompson, M., & Ross, P. (2023). Virtual First Impressions: Zoom backgrounds affect judgements of trust and competence. Durham University. Preprint available at https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/x56vq  

Dennen, V. P., Yalcin, Y., & Hur, J. (2022). Student webcam behaviors and beliefs: Emergent norms, student performance, and cultural differences. Online Learning, 26(4), 168–192. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v26i4.3472 

Farid, H., Siddiqui, T. A., Sukhia, R. H., Hasan, S. J., Naveed, A., & Pasha, L. (2022). Imperceptible learners: Students’ reasons for keeping webcams off and strategies to address students’ challenges. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 11(325). https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_1836_21  

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Groß, M., & Fries, A. (2025). Black Tiles Instead of Smiles–Key Reasons and Effects of Students’ Webcam Use During Online Lectures. https://doi.org/10.24251/HICSS.2025.005

Händel, M., Bedenlier, S., Kopp, B. et al. (2022). The webcam and student engagement in synchronous online learning: visually or verbally?. Educ Inf Technol 27, 10405–10428 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11m050-3

Lasekan, O. A., Pachava, V., Godoy Pena, M. T., Golla, S. K., & Raje, M. S. (2024). Investigating Factors Influencing Students’ Engagement in Sustainable Online Education. Sustainability, 16(689). https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020689  

LeRoy, L. S., & Kaufmann, R. (2024). Identifying student motivations for webcam use in online courses. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(4), 1204–1218. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2115516  

Pham, A. T. (2022). Engineering Students’ Perception of Using Webcams in Virtual English Classes. International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy, 12(6), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijep.v12i6.33317  

Succi, C., Nobile, T. H., Cantoni, L., & Tardini, S. (2024). Learning in Pyjamas: What Their Use of Webcams Reveals about Students’ Self-Presentation in Online Learning Activities. Interacting with Computers, 36(6), 398–405. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwae033  

Zhu, W., Leng, X., Mayer, R. E., & Wang, F. (2025). No need for webcams with synchronous online learning. Learning and Instruction, 98, 102131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102131